Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. [] These intermediaries assisted government diplomacy and helped to establish and maintain relations between the company and the traditional rulers. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 19401947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'. After the Berlin Conference of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the Oil Rivers Protectorate, which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. The superior weapons, tactics and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory. However, in October 1929 in Oloko a census related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. In these territories, violent resistance brought colonial rule to a close. The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. The preparation of a new federal constitution for an independent Nigeria was carried out at conferences held at Lancaster House in London in 1957 and 1958, which were presided over by The Rt. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. Earlier elements related to this were its founding of the Sierra Leone Colony in 1787 as a refuge for freed slaves, the independent missionary movement intended to bring Christianity to the Edo Kingdom, and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London-based African Association. The British, when faced with dissent, tended to grant political reforms in an effort to dispel the attractiveness of more-radical suggestions. Among his leading lieutenants were Samuel Akintola of Ogbomoso and the Oni of Ife, the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. Colonialism is defined as "control by one power over a dependent area or people.". The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. Nigeria became an independent state on the October 1, 1960 after being a British colony for over 40 years. At the turn of the century, top wages were four bags of salt (company retail price, 3s 9d) for a month of work. Subsequent revisions contained in the Lyttleton Constitution, enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared. In 1950 Aminu Kano, who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the Northern Elements Progressive Union (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. By a British Act of Parliament, Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960. Indigenous responses to imperialism during the period of 1750-1900 varied widely depending on the specific group of people and the imperial power they were interacting with. [70], Lugard's immediate successor (19191925), Sir Hugh Clifford, was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the Gold Coast in 19121919. From Lugard's point of view, clear-cut military victories were necessary because the surrenders of the defeated peoples weakened resistance elsewhere. [12] Trade was also conducted through a mechanism of barter and credit. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. Colonial Nigeria was the area of West Africa that became the modern day Nigeria, during the time of British rule in the 19th and 20th centuries. Initially, most palm oil (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the Ngwa, Nri Kingdom, Awka and other Igbo peoples. Nigeria's first nationalist movements appeared in the 1920s, and resistance to colonial rule grew over the next three decades. The trade subsequently continued under the Portuguese Empire. In 1850, the British created a "Court of Equity" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. The colonisers decided to use divide and rule method . The emirs gave support to limited modernization largely from fears of the unsettling presence of southerners in the north, and by observing the improvements in living conditions in the South. By 1938 the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the British Commonwealth of Nations so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. One 1885 treaty read: We, the undersigned King and Chiefs [] with the view to the bettering of the condition of our country and people, do this day cede to the National Africa Company (Limited), their heirs and assigns, forever, the whole of our territory [] We also give the said National African Company (Limited) full power to settle all native disputes arising from any cause whatever, and we pledge ourselves not to enter into any war with other tribes without the sanction of the said National Africa Company (Limited). It also means foreign rule on foreign lands. As a historical event, anticolonialism means the struggle against imperial rule in colonized countries, mostly during the first half of the twentieth century. [50] In the same year, the British created the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel Frederick Lugard. Locally this involved the immediate invasion of the German-held Kamerun (Cameroon) by Nigerian forces, followed by a costly campaign that lasted until 1916. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. [19] Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British Maxims, the earliest machine gun. By the 1820s, the British had made connections . Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903.,[47] In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."[48]. In her . Quiz. Because Western education and Christianity spread rapidly in the south and not in the north, development was much slower in the north, and the growing disparity between north and south later caused political tensions. He said that he did "not consider that their past traditions and their present backward cultural conditions afford to any such experiment a reasonable chance of success". Britain annexed Lagos in 1861 and established the Oil River Protectorate in 1884. [58], Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. In 1916, Sir Edward Carson led the majority of the Conservative and Unionist Party to vote against Party Leader Bonar Law on the issue, forcing it to withdraw from the Asquith coalition and for the government to begin to break apart. In the 1850s, quinine had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a Liverpool merchant, Macgregor Laird, opened the river. Lagos was annexed as a Crown Colony in 1861 via the Lagos Treaty of Cession.[30]. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the equity courts established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. The experiment began in 1890 and was repealed in 1939,[71]. [11], The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. In large measure, European missionaries assumed the value of colonial rule in terms of promoting education, health and welfare measures, thereby effectively reinforcing colonial policy. [17] Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire. Other European powers acknowledged Britain's dominance over the area in the 1885 Berlin Conference. Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship. I would encourage the society to resist by declaring a war against the Europeans. By the end of World War I, most of Africa had been effectively colonized. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed Samuel Ajayi Crowther as the first Anglican Bishop of the Niger. Then they resisted the policy as much as possible. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. In: Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs: (1999), vol. The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. of the Belgian colonial rule that eventually gave rise to a violent resistance against colonial rule, and the repression of this resistance resulted in the . The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. [72] In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future. The Royal Niger Company established its headquarters far inland at Lokoja, which was the main trading port of the company,[34] from where it began to assume responsibility for the administration of areas along the Niger and Benue rivers where it maintained depots. The British had participated in it until human trafficking was abolished in 1807. Revolts in against water rates and the alienation of indigenous land in 1908 and 1911 served to unite native African elites and working class residents. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. The early history of Lagos Colony was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. In 1794, the African Association in Great Britain commissioned Mungo Park, an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. The book traces communications in Nigeria back to pre-colonial indigenous communications, through the development of telecommunication, broadcasting networks, the press, the Nigerian lm industry ('Nollywood') and on to the digital . Resistance movements began to rise in . The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. Definition of Colonialism Colonialism means a system which the Europeans adopted in ruling the colonies of Africa to their own benefits. The Niger Delta and Calabar, which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. If adopted, his proposals can hardly be a permanent solution and I gather that Sir F. Lugard only regards them as temporaryat any rate in part. . Formal diplomatic relations were established with the opening of the American Embassy in Lagos and of the Nigerian Embassy in Washington, both on 1 October 1960, the same day which Nigeria acquired its independence from British rule. The Eastern region was dominated by Azikiwe and the Western one by Chief Obafemi Awolowo, a Yoruba lawyer who in 1950 founded the Action Group. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. Local administration, where the colonial citizens typically experienced colonial authority, was based on the policy of indirect rule first developed in the north. Nigeria is a good example. Frederick Lugard, who was appointed as High Commissioner of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate in 1900 and served until 1906 in his first term, often has been regarded by the British as their model colonial administrator. Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.[68]. Updated: 11/12/2021 Create an account [75] The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation. rebellion. [19][41], In 18961897 the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Edo Empire. Beginning in the 1920s, a number of Nigerians joined other Blacks in various parts of the world to embark on the wider project of Pan-Africanism, which sought to liberate Black people from racism and European domination. Nigeria: A Country Study. In case of resistance by one of its friends the other would join hands to mount formidable resistance against colonial rule e.g. Samori Ture 7. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". The discussion of pragmatic resistance in Africa comes full circle with the former Portuguese colonies, South Africa, and Kenya. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister H. H. Asquith's Liberal government and subsequent war coalition favored allowing international free trade. [9] Administration and military control of the territory was conducted primarily by white Britons, both in London and in Nigeria. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local Efik traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.[67]. refusing to pay. [16] Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area. A new constitution was created in 1922 under British colonial rule, largely due to Nigerian calls for reform. In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulersthe system was modified to fit the needs of each region. Following the defeat of an unsuccessful foray by Consul General James R. Phillips, a larger retaliatory force captured Benin City and drove Ovonramwen, the Oba of Benin, into exile. After initially adopting an indirect rule approach, in 1906 the British merged the small Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate into a new Colony of Southern Nigeria, and in 1914 that was combined with the Northern Nigeria Protectorate to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. The Northern People's Congress (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. The Nigerian Legislative Council was established in 1914 and was given limited jurisdiction; it was replaced in 1922 by a larger one that included elected members from Lagos and Calabar, although its powers also were limited and the northern provinces remained outside its control. For this objective, the Company chose to administer the African inhabitants of the Niger Sudan through their traditional rulers and their political institutions. Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 1921. Introduction. The officers of the RWAFF were British. colonizers and passive resistance by refusing to collaborate with the colonizers e .g. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories. "The Hidden Hand of Overrule: Political Agents and the Establishment of British Colonial Rule in Northern Nigeria, 18861914". [8] Azikiwe was installed as Governor-General of the federation and Balewa continued to serve as head of a democratically elected parliamentary, but now completely sovereign, government. [73], Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October. The Royal Navy bombarded Lagos in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a treaty with the newly installed Oba Akintoye, who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. Adam Smith wrote in 1776 that the African societies were better established and more populous than those of the Americas, thus creating a more formidable barrier to European expansion. Early on in colonial rule, for example, Nigerians protested the manner in which water rates and head taxes were collected. In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulersincluding the Sultan of Sokoto, the Emir of Kano and the Oba of Beninto represent all parts of the colony. WORKING PAPER: Passive and Active Resistance to Openness - 4 can also resist fulfilling the spirit of FOIAs in a more passive or subtle manner. Read published a Memorandum on British possessions in West Africa, which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between Lagos Colony, the Niger Coast Protectorate and the Royal Niger Company. Bolivian indigenous activist Ivan Ignacio, one of many indigenous activists at the second People's Summit in Qubec . It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the blockade of Africa. Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of Harold Laski at the London School of Economics, whose political orientation was considered left-wing. [25][n 1], The missionaries gained in power throughout the 1800s. Economic Impact The [] The Kikuyu people of Kenya, like most Africans, were laborers with the women doing most work at home while the men found work across the country. After 1940, political activities were broadened to include more people. [82], Oil exploration began in 1906 under John Simon Bergheim's Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, to which the Colonial Office granted exclusive rights. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to Muslim Arab slave traders. [36], The company, as was common among European businesses in Africa, paid its native workers in barter. The Royal Niger Company had its own armed forces. In these territories, violent resistance brought colonial rule to a close. It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than 1,500 kilometres (930mi), passing through the western portions of the Sokoto Caliphate, before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near Bussa. [56], Walter Egerton's sixfold agenda for 1908, as detailed on 29 November 1907, in a telegram to the Colonial Office, is representative of British priorities. British influence in the region began with the prohibition of slave trade to British subjects in 1807. Officials of the Sokoto Caliphate considered these treaties quite differently; from their perspective, the British were granted only extraterritorial rights that did not prevent similar arrangements with the Germans and the French and certainly did not surrender sovereignty. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. Discover how the Mandinka Empire, Zimbabwe, Ethiopia, and Nigeria resisted European colonists and the impact each conflict had. The most striking departure was in the Northern Region, where special provisions brought the regional constitution into consonance with Islamic law and custom. Clifford emphasized economic development, encouraging enterprises by immigrant southerners in the north while restricting European participation to capital intensive activity. In one year, Lugard recruited 2600 troops, evenly split between Hausa and Yoruba. In Africa, Nigerians lived under British rule from 1900 to 1960. The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. [54] Olivier was a member of the Fabian Society and a friend of George Bernard Shaw. Its program reflected greater planning and was more ideologically oriented than that of the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons. [59], Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.[60]. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 1213. The Sokoto jihad and the Yoruba wars stimulated the slave trade at a time when the British were actively trying to stop it. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the Oba of Benin, whose office was closely identified with Edo religion, was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. Britain annexed Lagos in 1861 and established the Oil River Protectorate in 1884. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. By the end of World War I, most of Africa had been effectively colonized. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906. [49], Concrete plans for transition to Crown ruledirect control by the British Governmentapparently began in 1897. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race [] never yet satisfied a nation long and [] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition". The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312-member House of Representatives and the 44-member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. resistance to British invasion and colonial rule so as to close that vacuum created by the 'majority syndrome' approach. As a result, the trading post at the Niger River is created and the British economic rule is maintained over the colonies, exploiting Nigerians (Graham, 2009). While this system had built-in contradictions, over the years the Nigerian system developed into a sophisticated form of local government, especially in the emirates and under the banner of native administration, which became the hallmark of British colonial rule in Africa. Throughout this period of reign, many changes were made to their . . Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdividedNorthern, Western and Eastern regions. In the South, only English had official status. The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. . Like in other countries under imperialist rule, colonialism in Nigeria resulted in numerous positive and negative impacts. The southern protectorate was divided into two provinces in 1939Western and Easternand in 1954 they, along with the northern protectorate, were renamed the Western, Eastern, and Northern regions as part of Nigerias reconstruction into a federal state. THE COLONIAL ECONOMIC LEGACY. The forces unleashed against the British were now diverse, including soldiers who had served in World War II, the media, restless youth, market women, educated people, and farmers, all of whom became committed to the anticolonial movement. [72] In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). Military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities 18861914 '' 30 ] it anti-slavery. These intermediaries assisted government diplomacy and helped to establish and maintain relations between the company, as common... 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