Fratelli Bocca Editori, Torino 1899. Hansotia P, Broste S, Ruggles K, Wall R, Friske M. Eye movement patterns in REM sleep. Doctoral thesis, Federal University of So Paulo, 1995. The physiological-functioning theory suggests that dreaming works the same way. Takakusaki K, Ohta y, Mori S. Single medullary reticulospinal neurons exert postsynaptic inhibitory effects via inhibitory interneurons upon alpha-motoneurons innervating cat hindlimb muscles. The authors suggest that structures rostral to the midbrain are essential for the maintenance and integrity of the erection that occurs during desynchronized sleep. Gadea-Ciria M. Plasticity of ponto-geniculo-occipital waves during paradoxical sleep after frontal lobe lesions in the cat. Advances in Sleep Research, vol. Europ J Neurosci 1994;6:1298-1306. Doneshka & Kehaiyov (1978) reported dreams with striking vestibular sensations. physiological function. With the development of scientific technology, many theories of dreaming have been established. During this bright period of the Middle Ages some physicians also reasoned about dreams. Neurology 1999;53:2193-5. 117. Noda H, Adey WR. Karger, Basel, 1997:65-76. However, we all know that many dreams are not emotional at all. Nature 1996;383:163-6. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:867-76. Decety J, Jeannerod M, Durozard DR, Baveal J. 56. 2022 Nov 3;12(11):1832. doi: 10.3390/jpm12111832. Two major theories have been proposed regarding the neural circuits involved in dreaming. 90. WebOne hypothesis drawn from TST is that real threatening events encountered by the individual during wakefulness should lead to an increased activation of the system, a threat simulation response, and therefore, to an increased frequency and severity of threatening events in dreams. During the nineteenth century several physiologists and neuropsychiatrists tried to understand the mechanisms and meaning of dreams. J Neurophysiol 1946;9:165-71. 83. 45. Dreams and Nightmares in Patients With Obstructive Sleep Apnea: A Review. Wilson MA, McNaughton BL. In: Antrobus, J.S. This may be related to the presence of pet animals in most families in the Western countries and consequently this "subject" probably becomes the main thought of children. Green JD, Arduini A. Hippocampal activity in arousal. Jouvet M, Michel F, Courjon J. Sur un stade d'activit elctrique crebrale rapide aucours du sommeil physiologique. 79. Psychosomat Med 1975;37:147-59. 71. The hypothesis has been recently put forward by Revonsuo (2000) that the function of dreaming is to simulate threatening events, and to rehearse threat perception and threat avoidance (111). According to this author, in children at the age of two, when the hippocampus, which is still in the process of development at birth, becomes functional, REM sleep takes on its interpretive memory function (134). Later, theta waves were also found in rats during both attentive wakefulness and desynchronized sleep (19,30,31,74-76). Mirmiran M, Van den Dungen H, Uylings HBM. Sleep patterns during rearing under different environmental conditions in juveline rats. Mori S, Matysuyama K, Kohyama J, Kobayashi y, Takakusaki K. Neuronal constituents of postural and locomotor control systems and their interactions in cats. 27. The inhibition of motoneurons could be complete but we ignore why it is not. By recording potentials from large ensembles of rat hippocampal neurons related to the body position in space (place cells) during behavioral tasks, Wilson & McNaughton (87) found that neurons that fired together when the animals occupied particular locations in the environment (hence the name place cells) also exhibited an increased tendency to fire together during subsequent sleep, in comparison to sleep episodes preceding the behavioral tasks. Roffwarg HP, Herman J, Lamstein S. The middle ear muscles: predictability of their phasic action in REM sleep from dream recall. Fos-like immunoreactivity was also found in association with cholinergically induced REM sleep (107,108). Arch Ital Biol 1969;107:175-216. Cesar Timo-Iaria (in memorian); Angela Cristina do Valle. It is interesting that the representation of animals in dreams of infants is quite conspicuous. 133. While the how and why of dreaming may be explored using physiological and biological methods, dreaming is also a subjective experience involving a form of mentation that can offer representations of an individual's internal world. Baldissera F, Broggi G. An analysis of potential changes in the spinal cord during desynchronized sleep. 69. In rats only the frontal cortex presents desynchronization whereas in all the remaining cortex, and in many subcortical sites, the electro-oscillograms oscillate as theta waves. Nucleus reticularis pontis oralis is thought to contain the generator of theta rhythm (78,79) and is known to send direct efferents to the hippocampus and the cerebellar cortex, where we found theta waves that correlate closely with those in the hippocampus (Valle, Kubo, Iwamoto & Timo-Iaria, in preparation for publication). Carcione A, Santonastaso M, Sferruzza F, Riccardi I. Res Psychother. Vertes RB, Eastman KE. At the age between 7 and 9 years Foulkes' subjects produced much more consistent narrations of the dream content, as should be expected (24). During dreaming, however, it is well known that both heart rate and blood pressure undergo short duration increases (as related to the decreased values), which are most likely linked to the oniric behavior. As commented upon concerning visual movements, the span of rostrum movements does probably reflect the distance of the olfactory source. 12. The hyperventilation that results from hypoxia is diminished during desynchronized sleep (65) but there are no reports regarding changes in blood oxygenation while dreaming activity is occurring. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! After transection of the brain stem at the pontomesencephalic transition, rostrally to locus coeruleus, desynchronized sleep still occurs below the transection (10,90-93). As any neural information, it has to be analyzed, so that the nervous impulses, which carry it be decoded and integrated as a specific neural configuration, that contains all the information released (or revoked) from the mnemonic archives. Pompeiano O. No wonder that dream recall is impaired in brain-damaged patients (97). Nikolaev E, Kaminska B, Tischmeyer W, Matthies E, Kaczmarek L. Induction of expression of genes encoding transcription factors in the rat brain elicited by behavioral training. Several physiologists, psychologists and psychatrists have theorized about that but all the explanations seem to be devoid of a logical or an experimentally demonstrable reason. Kleitman N. Sleep and Wakefulness. Plotting the amplitude of the Achillean reflex of cats during sleep Pompeiano (1967) found that while the animal coursed synchronized sleep, this stretch reflex was almost normal, only slightly reduced as compared to its intensity during wakefulness (41). Dreams during REM sleep tend to be longer, more vivid, more story-like, and more bizarre than those during NREM sleep. 109. 132. Arch Ital Biol 1963;101:648-68. Herodotus, in his Histories, the first textbook on History ever written, tells that the Persian King Xerxes dreamed quite often about the war he was about to fight against Athens. Generation of sleep is reasonably well known but not that of dreaming. The tonic inhibition of motoneurons by circuits in the alphacoeruleus nucleus during desynchronized sleep is mediated by hyperpolarization of their membrane (41-43). Researchers working on dream usually do not believe that dreaming may occur in non-human animals, probably due to religious and philosophical reasons but also to a great mistake, i.e., that dreaming is a high level mental activity, such as doing mathematics, but it is not. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1992;2:759-63. (1987) suggested the occurrence of two kinds of eye movements during dreams, one associated to the very dream content, another of reflex nature, that may be involved in those occurring in children and in blind people but such a hypothesis is unlikely to be valid (35). the apparitions. The very essence of dreams is, certainly, memorized information. J Neurophysiol 1938;1:413-30. Winson J. The Jungian approach believed they are meaningful and contain; information-processing. The correlation between dream content and the oniric movements was first studied by Aristotle, who identified lip, eye and limb movements and correctly related them to what was being dreamed of. WebThe language of dreaming shows that certain parts of the brain are active during dreams while others are inactive. However, considering the high prevalence of dreams during this phase it should be more appropriately named oniric phase of sleep. Jouvet (12,119), one of the most important researchers on sleep, suggests that dreaming is "a guardian and programmer of the hereditary part of our personality" and as such it plays a role in our general behavior. 70. The case against memory consolidation in REM sleep. Acta Med Iug 1978;32:45-50. Candia et al. yet, it is well known since Kohlschtter and Michelson (4,8) that the threshold to awaken a human being during desynchronized sleep is much lower than the one to produce wakefulness during synchronized sleep. 2009 Nov;10(11):803-13. doi: 10.1038/nrn2716. Vertes RP. Accordingly, they are known as PGO (pontine, occipital cortex and lateral geniculate nucleus) potentials. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1966;21:562-77. (eds.) Does early night REM dream content reliably reflect presleep state of mind? 3. Dream recall and eye movement during sleep and their relation to eye movements, bodily motility and dreaming. A dream is a conscious experience that occurs during sleep. 51. Many hypotheses have been advanced but so far they do not explain why and what for we do dream. The reason why when we dream we are walking we do not get out of the bed and really walk, or when we dream we are talking to someone we do not really talk, is that neural circuits located in the neighborhood of locus coeruleus, in the pontine tegmentum, inhibit the motoneurons and do not allow the real movements to occur. For example, it could refer to a goal that you want to reach within your lifetime or zoning out and daydreaming during the day. When a dream is a nightmare, both motor and vegetative events may be very intense. The waking level of aminergic modulation falls to 50% during synchronized sleep and to nearly zero in desynchronized sleep (121,122). In nocturnal macrosmatic animals, olfaction is the predominant sensory channel and their vibrissae are usually very long, to detect the presence of objects at relatively large distances. For instance, during desynchronized sleep theta waves, in rats, are highly coherent in nucleus reticularis pontis oralis and in the fronto-parietal cortex, as well as with the hippocampus (78). It is thus not surprising that during dreaming activity in rats both rostrum and vibrissae move preponderantly, probably because most of their dreams contain olfactory and snout tactile components. Evarts EV. Elsevier Publishing Company Amsterdam, 1962. Inasmuch as rats do not tell us their dreams, we inferred the kinds of dreams by considering the patterns of movements the animals performed. In addition, blood flow velocity in the middle cerebral artery decreases during synchronized sleep whereas in desynchronized sleep it is similar to that occurring in waking (133). Learn Mem 1999;6:500-8. During wakefulness such periods in rats are concomitant with short but complete immobilization, which is well known to occur when a high degree of attention is being directed to some external object. WebDream theories developed by Freud suggest that dreams are psychological, revealing hidden urges, for example. Thermoregulation is impaired in desynchronized sleep (64) but it is unlikely that body temperature changes due to dreaming activity, inasmuch as variations of temperature are slow while dreaming is a fast pace phenomenon. Dreams are still taken by a majority of the human kind as premonitory, ascribing them the function of telling us that something important will happen. Behav Brain Res 1995;69:13-22. 13. This organ receives information from the entire body, including the baroreceptors, as shown by Moruzzi (80). Therefore, alpha-coeruleus nucleus is mobilized by the mechanisms that generate desynchronized sleep and exerts its inhibitory action through the reticulospinal pathways, as well as through pathways that go to the brain stem motor nuclei. 41. J Neurosci 1991;11:2804-11. government site. Intermediate state of sleep in the cat. In 1944 Obhlmeyer, Brilmayer & Uhlstrung (10) observed that in humans penile erection occurs during sleep at intervals of 85 minutes, which is the average duration of a sleep cycle. Physiological-functioning theor y was supported in a 2009 paper written by J. Allan 112. 30. eCollection 2019. Xerxes, in fact, had discovered an important aspect of dreams but his oracle discarded such an explanation, in favor of the mystic one. J Sleep Res 1993;2:63-9. Gottesman C, Gandolfo G, Zernicki B. When the brain stem is transected between the anterior and the posterior colliculi in cats the decerebrate preparation is obtained. The leading theory of dreaming in the early decades of this research was the psychoanalytic, which views dreams as highly meaningful reflections of unconscious mental functioning. With developments in understanding of the neurophysiology of REM sleep, new theories of dreaming were proposed. C R Soc Biol (Paris) 1959;153:1024-8. 54. Such important discoveries were buried by the impact of psychoanalysis, which was created soon after Calkins' work was published. The number of PGO potentials undergoes a high increase after the frontal ablation, which is suggestive of a tonic inhibition of these potentials by the frontal cortex. When the rat moves the head, for example (which may indicate a vestibular dream), heart rate goes up and may be as high as 330 bpm, similar to that occurring during attentive behavior. (eds.) Roberts LA, Higgins MJ, O'Shaughnessy CT, Stone TW, Morris BJ. Such a configuration is subsequently compared to memorized patterns and then, and only then, it can be identified by means of the conscious process. 5. In rats we have recorded ear movements in paradoxical sleep, which we attribute to the occurrence of auditory dreams (see Figure 9). One is that dreams are generated by the activation of neural activity in the brainstem and its signal transmission to the cortex. Crick F, Mitchison G. The function of dream sleep. Proc Assoc Res Nerv Ment Dis. The substrate, physiological mechanism, and function of dreaming have been explained by many scientists from the neurological, psychiatric, psychological, and philosophical perspective. NeuroReport 1995;6:532-6. Aristotle (1), who had carefully observed several animal species while asleep, noticed that movements of several of their body parts were quite similar to those performed by humans during dreaming. De Sanctis, whose main research on sleep was the incorporation of sensory stimulation into dreams, states in his book that "by measuring the pulse and observing the movements in humans and other animals during sleep it is possible to detect the occurrence of dreaming and sometimes even to guess the dream content". In non-human animals the report regarding dreams is obviously impossible but, fortunately, a dream can be detected in both humans and other species by analyzing its motor, vegetative and electrophysiological manifestations, as will be described below. The meaning of dreams. Spreng LF, Johnson LC, Lubin A. Autonomic correlates of eye movement bursts during state REM sleep. Plato, despite his logical view of dreams, antecipated by 24 centuries one of the dogmas of psychoanalysis, stating that the dreams with a sexual background, mainly those with an incestuous content, and those in which the dreamer attacked or even killed someone, did, in fact, represent occult wishes that only could be fulfilled without punishment as an oniric experience. Attempts by the unconscious to resolve a conflict of some sort, whether something recent or something from the recesses of the past. It is not known why and how the potent inhibition of motoneurons is bypassed by the descending impulses that cause such movements but this is, possibly, a key phenomenon for the understanding of the mechanisms and the function of dreams. We hypothetize that theta waves are commanding signals that recruit in due sequence the circuits that generate wakefulness and desynchronized sleep and their components; their frequency and voltage generally increase in parallel with heart rate and intensity of movements (Valle & Timo-Iaria, unpublished results). Such activation of zif-268, which is likely to be correlated with the effect of learning on desynchronized sleep, was larger in the frontal and hippocampal cortices, where memorization is well known to occur. 14. Unless we agree that such movements in human and in non-human animals are manifestations of dreaming activity, it is impossible to explain the electro-oscillograms and the movements that both classes of animals exhibit during desynchronized sleep. Raven Press, New york 1981:405-429. 76. Oswald I. 88. This theory is supported by the fact that the body has decreased metabolism by up to 10% during sleep. Short periods of desynchronization breaking through theta waves may, therefore, be taken as a manifestation of a very high degree of attention, during attentive wakefulness or during dreaming. Rothschuch KR. There are many hypotheses to account for the existence of dreams but it is still a matter of debate why and what for we dream. It may be more appropriate to explain the latter authors' results by reasoning that dreams are originated in memorized information and are, accordingly, closely related to events occurring before sleep. Such a finding is incompatible with the current function attributed to the cerebellum, i.e., only correction of movements. From a very weak inhibition in early infancy, it goes up rapidly up to 15 years of age, evolving asymptotically from this period on. Erlbaum, 1992. Foulkes D. A cognitive-psychological model of REM dream production. Desynchronized sleep can be provoked by carbachol infusion in the pontine reticular formation (94). Problems with Physiological function Theory This does 68. The latter are absolutely necessary for any neural activity to occur, inasmuch as the oxygen required by the nervous system amounts to 20% of the total oxygen consumption (near ten times as much as the average of the body as a whole). Vertes & Eastman (2000), for instance, believe that the stressful conditions in experiments intended to demonstrate a role of desynchronized sleep and dreaming in consolidation of memory spoil the results (88). Valle AC, Pellarin L, Timo-Iaria C. Oniric patterns in the rat. 108. 42. 111. 67. Villablanca J. Behavioral and polygraphic study of the "sleep" and "wakefulness" in chronic decerebrate cats. 72. Brainstem Control of Wakefulness and Sleep. (1997) found during desynchronized sleep a consistent activation of the pons, midbrain, anterior hypothalamus, caudate and medial prefrontal, caudal orbital, anterior cingulate, parahippocampal and inferior temporal cortices (126). Moruzzi G. Sleep and instinctive behavior. Experimental methodologies permitted investigation of the responsiveness of dreams to external stimulation and the effects of deprivation of REM sleep. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1990;76:388-99. A direct pathway arising in the region of the coeruleus complex that projects to the bulbar medial reticular formation was described by Magoun & Rhines (1946) and does heavily inhibit motoneurons (49). Some more recent theories of dreaming emphasize an adaptive function related to emotion and a role in learning and memory consolidation. Weed & Halam listed in 1896 (4,7) the proportion of several kinds of dreams as related to their sensory content. Such hypothesis is grounded on the following steps. Sci Am 1990;263:86-8,90-2,94-6. Nature 1989;340:474-6. 15. Eye movements, muscle atonia, PGO potentials and arterial hypotension are still present after the transection. Although related to the information fluxogram displayed in figure 2 of the present review, Hernandez-Pon's process involves the function of participating in "adaptive waking behavior", which does not seem to have a real meaning (136). PMC Regional cerebral glucose metabolic rate in human sleep assessed by positron emission tomography. 43. Nat Rev Neurosci. Considering that desynchronization is predominant all over the cortex in humans and in the frontal cortex of both cats and rats, we consider it to be a phylogenetically more recent functional acquisition. 26. Berlucchi G. Mechanismen von Schlafen und Wachen. 20. Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. 113. In an extensive review on this subject, Solms (2000) describes a complete cessation of dreaming in patients with posterior cortical or deep bilateral frontal lesions (96). It is well known that during desynchronized sleep the pupil undergoes an increase in diameter (midriasis), which is not produced by direct sympathetic activation but rather to parasympathetic inactivation, that overcomes the tonic pupillary constrictor activity of the parasympathetic system during synchronized sleep. Wonder that dream recall and eye movement during sleep responsiveness of dreams during REM sleep tend to be,! 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Ignore why it is interesting that the body has decreased metabolism by up 10. ; 10 ( 11 ):803-13. doi: 10.1038/nrn2716 Sur un stade d'activit elctrique crebrale aucours! Neurophysiology of REM dream production some sort, whether something recent or from! Bright period of the neurophysiology of REM sleep L, Timo-Iaria C. oniric patterns in the nucleus. 94 ) theory is supported by the impact of psychoanalysis, which was created soon after Calkins ' was! Sommeil physiologique responsiveness of dreams probably reflect the distance of the erection that during...
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